Imnotherapy: A Therapeutic Analysis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) involves an autoimmune process that develops when a previous viral insult to the nervous system has occurred in a genetically susceptible individual. B lymphocytes, plasma cells, and activated T cells, along with proinflammatory cytokines, cause inflammation, oligodendrocyte injury and demyelination. Early inflammation and demyelination lead to irreversible axonal

(National MS Society) (Mayo Clinic) Myelin is the fatty substance that surrounds and insulated the nerve fibers. (National MS Society) Multiple Sclerosis is also know to be an immune-mediated process that sends abnormal responses of the body’s immune system that is directed again the Central Nervous System (CNS). Myelin is compared to the insulation on electrical wires. (National Multiple Sclerosis Society) The Central Nervous System is made up of the optic nerves, brain and spinal cord. The exact antigen – or target that the immune cells are sensitized to attack remains unknown. (National Multiple Sclerosis Society) In Multiple Sclerosis immune system There is yet to be any reason as to what causes MS. Scientist believe the disease is triggered by but not yet identified by environmental factors in a person who is genetically predisposed to respond. (National MS Society) Some researchers say that it is an autoimmune disease. There is no cure for MS, but there are treatments that can help you recovery and minimize your attacks, and modify the diseases course. (Mayo Clinic)

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a neurologic disease that affects the Central Nervous System (CNS) through cellular immune response and the demyelination of CNS white matter (McCance et al., 2014, pp. 630–633). The initial causes of MS are unknown however, it is believed that it could possibly be due to an immune response to an initiating infection or an autoimmune response to CNS antigens on the myelin itself (Brück, 2005) (Miljković and Spasojević, 2013). MS is a result of the degradation of the myelin sheath surrounding neurons and therefore disrupts the transmission of action potentials along these cells. MS can display itself in the form of symptoms ranging from muscle weakness to trouble with sensation and coordination (NHS, 2016). The degradation of myelin leads the body to attempt to remyelinate the neurons, a process that in turn leads to the thickening of the cell by glial cells and this causes lesions to form (Chari, 2007). It is this thickening (sclerae) from which the disease gets its name. Sufferers of MS can either have a relapsing type of MS, in which there are episodes that lead to the worsening of symptoms for a period of time, or a progressive type of MS where symptoms gradually progress and worsen (McCance et al., 2014, pp. 630–633).

All living things on this earth are subject to attack from a disease-causing agent. Therefore, multicellular animals have dedicated cells and tissues that fight off infectious microbes in order to build immunity. A multitude of specialized cells carries out much of the immune system’s work. Each of these cells is intended to fight off diseases in a particular way. Vaccination, which is one of the methods that is used to prevent germs from proliferating, is subject of many discussions. While opponents believe that most of the diseases such as diphtheria and varicella are not necessarily harmful, and that injecting questionable vaccine ingredient into a child may cause side effects, such as seizures, paralysis, proponents believe that vaccination has been one of the greatest developments of the 20th century. It has served as a protection for the community, and has saved children and parent’s time money.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a potentially disabling disease of the brain and spinal cord, particularly the central nervous system (CNS). In MS the immune system attacks the myelin, which is the protective sheath that covers the nerve fibers and causes communication between your brain and the rest of your body. Eventually, the disease can cause the nerves to deteriorate or even lead to permanent damage. They deteriorate in variable degrees and produce significant disability within 20-25 years in more than 30% of patients, (Luzzio, 2016). The majority of people diagnosed with MS are adults between the ages of 20 and 45; twice as many women are affected compared to men. However, MS can present itself in childhood or late middle age, but is uncommon. According to Goldenberg (2012), there is no known cause for this debilitating disease, but it appears to involve a combination of genetic susceptibility and a nongenetic trigger, such as a virus, metabolism, or environmental factors

There are four different patterns of inflammation in the white matter that is associated with individuals with multiple sclerosis (Lassmann et. al. 2007).The first pattern of inflammation is associated with the demyelination caused by macrophage activity. This pattern of inflammation is characterized by perivascular demyelination with radial expansion and extensive remyelination. The second pattern of inflammation demyelination is associated with antibody and complement activity. The lesions exhibited in this pattern are similar to lesions that occur in the first pattern except that the active demyelination sites demonstrate additional deposition of immunoglobulin (Ig) and activated complement in pattern 2. Immunoglobulins are antibodies that

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disease of the Central nervous system that progresses over a period time (“NINDS,” 2015). The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. Damage to the central nervous system may interfere with sensory, motor, and cognitive functions. Myelin is an insulating layer around neuron processes that serves as a protective barrier (“MedlinePlus,”2016). In the case of Multiple Sclerosis, this protective layer is permanently damaged by sources that is still being investigated. The deterioration of the Myelin sheath inhibits, or slows down signals between the brain and the body (“NMSS,” 2012). Although there is currently no cure for Multiple Sclerosis, there are different treatment options that may help slow down the progression of the disease. As a chronic disease, it offers many challenges to the researchers looking for holistic ways to manage symptoms.

Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease that majorly affects the brainand the spinal cord (A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia, 1). The disease affects the central nervous system and thus causes limitations of individuals to carry out various activities. In multiple sclerosis, the myelin sheath that covers nerve cell axon is destroyed causing inflammation (MediResource Inc., 1). Destructionof the membrane leads to slowed conveyance of signals from the spinal cord to the brain, which as a result leads to reduced response to different stimuli. Inflammation of the nerve occurs mostly when the immune cells from the body attack the nervous system. The inflammation is not only limited to the spinal cord, but sometimes extends to

The exact cause of MS is unknown. However, its pathogenesis is associated with irregular immune responses against CNS antigens, interference of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and trans endothelial migration of activated leukocytes, as well as chemokines and cytokines, from peripheral circulation to the CNS. In active disease, there appears to be ongoing inflammatory as well as neurodegenerative processes within the CNS atmosphere. The triggering event for the first attack of MS remains projected. It is assumed that genetic and environmental factors are involved in the progress of MS. (Borazanci, 2009, p. 2)

Worldwide, more than 2.3 million people are currently affected by Multiple Sclerosis (MS). This condition “is a life-long, potentially debilitating disease of the central nervous system (CNS)” (Pasquier, 2014, 537). Specifically, it is a chronic auto-immune disease that attacks the central nervous system. Furthermore, the person’s own immune system does not recognize the neurons and attacks the myelin, and the nerve fibers it covers and protects. The myelin then creates scar tissue which causes damage and keeps the nerve impulses in the neuron from being able to travel to the brain or the spinal cord. If this occurs, bodily functions become difficult or impossible because messages aren’t being delivered to or from the organs back to the CNS.

Multiple sclerosis, or MS, is a chronic, autoimmune, and degenerative disease of the central nervous system. Its etiology is unknown, but a combination of environmental and genetic factors is likely responsible for its development. MS occurs when one’s immune system attacks the fatty protein myelin, which insulates and protects the axons of oligodendrocytes in the brain and spinal cord. Damage to this sheath can cause the miscommunication between these oligodendrocytes and the rest of the body, and additionally causes painful and debilitating symptoms. The severity of these symptoms varies from one person to another and is dependent on the extent of the nerve damage and the types of nerves that have been affected. This disease effects one’s motor and cognitive abilities, and can oftentimes lead to severe impairment of one’s movement and speech. There is no known cure for this inflammatory disease, but medication and therapy can help alleviate the effects as the disease progresses.

Multiple Sclerosis (M.S) is a chronic autoimmune, inflammatory disease of the Central Nervous System (CNS) that leads to a variety of disabilities, including: asthenia, lack of coordination, abnormal vision, cognitive changes, and sexual and urinary dysfunction(1). M.S pathogenesis involves a complex process of the activity of macrophages and micro-glial cells that leads to differentiation of specific neural Th1 lymphocytes (Myelin auto reactive T-Cells) and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the CNS. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an autoimmune disease, characterized by inflammation of central nervous system (CNS) injury. This disease is an animal model of multiple sclerosis in human (2). In EAE, CD4+ lymphocytes call macrophages to the central nervous system, subsequently they are activated against microglia cells, which lead to demyelination of neurons (3, 4). EAE can be induced by injection of central nervous system proteins, such as basic myelin proteolipid protein derived from CNS proteins, to animals such as monkeys, pigs, rats and mice (5, 6). Recently, the role of Th2 cytokines in therapy and control of EAE as a potential treatment for M.S has been accepted. Following information suggest that immune modulators, especially those that lead to suppress Th2 environment, can be potential treatments for M.S(3). Many studies have shown that M.S is a Th1 lymphocyte-dependent autoimmune disease. There have been significant

Multiple Sclerosis (MS), is an autoimmune disease in which the surrounding protective coating layer of the axon, myelin, is degraded, resulting in the formation of inflamed lesions (also referred to as plaques) around the regions of the brain and spinal cord. The myelin sheath is not only a protective layer, but it also increases the speed of electrical impulses transfer across the body via saltatory conduction. Depending on the severity of damage to the myelin, it can slow down or distort messages travelling along nerve fibres, some signals may not pass through at all, as damage may eventually degrade and impair the axon itself. This attack is carried out by cytotoxic T cells (CD8+) , which are activated by tip-dendritic cells. It has been observed in case studies where in the presence of increased concentration of CD8+, there is a positive correlation to the increased damage brought to the myelin. However, there are alternative studies that imply that because the myelin presenting peptide CD4+ is involved in the onset of inflammation, the CD8+ may be the one attempting to prevent the attack on the myelin. Still no one is sure of the cause, or is fully aware of the true functions of the receptors involved.

Advances in the understanding of the molecular and cellular immunological mechanisms and recombinant DNA technology have led to the development of new immunotherapic therapies for disease conditions.

Early vaccinations were primarily attenuated or inactivated, but over time and with advancements in immunology, biochemistry, and molecule biology, there have been new strategies implemented in the development of vaccines. An article in the Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research discusses the use of recombinant proteins which allows the targeting of immune responses focused against protective antigens. There are, "a variety of expression systems with different advantages, allowing the production of large quantities of proteins depending on the required characteristics. Live recombinant bacteria or viral vectors effectively stimulate the immune system as in natural infections and have intrinsic adjuvant properties." (Nascimento and Leite, 2012). The recombinant