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The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. 2000.
 
The Usage Panel
 
Geoffrey Nunberg, PhD Chair
Xerox Palo Alto Research Center and Stanford University
 
Edwin Newman Chair Emeritus
Journalist; lecturer; author
 
Elie Abel Educator; writer; Professor Emeritus, Stanford University
 
Shana Alexander Writer
 
Sherman Alexie Poet; fiction writer
 
Roger Angell Writer; editor
 
Natalie Angier Science journalist; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
Kwame Anthony Appiah Chair, The Harvard University Committee on African Studies; Professor of Philosophy and
of Afro-American Studies, Harvard University; editor; author
 
James Atlas Writer; editor
 
Margaret Atwood Writer
 
Kathryn H. Au Professor of Education, University of Hawaii
 
Louis Auchincloss Writer
 
Sheridan Baker Professor Emeritus of English, University of Michigan
 
Letitia Baldrige Author; lecturer
 
Jacques Barzun Writer; educator; author of works on English usage
 
John Baugh Professor of Linguistics, Stanford University
 
Carolyn Wilkerson Bell Susan Duval Adams Professor of English, Randolph-Macon Women’s College
 
Daniel Bell Scholar; Henry Ford II Professor of Social Sciences Emeritus, Harvard University; Scholar in Residence, American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 
Pierre Berton Canadian author and historian
 
Harold Bloom Sterling Professor of Humanities, Yale University; Berg Professor of English, New York University; MacArthur Fellow
 
Roy Blount, Jr. Writer; Contributing Editor, The Atlantic Monthly
 
Kallia H. Bokser Housing Consultant
 
The Hon. Julian Bond Formerly Georgia state legislator; Professor, American University and the University of Virginia; lecturer; host, public affairs television program
 
The Hon. Daniel J. Boorstin Librarian of Congress Emeritus; Historian; recipient, Pulitzer Prize and National Book Award Medal
 
Charles P. Boren Newspaper editor (retired)
 
Marisa Bowe Writer; Editor-in-Chief, Word
 
Barbara Taylor Bradford Writer
 
The Hon. William W. Bradley Author; formerly U.S. Senator from New Jersey; formerly professional basketball player
 
Leo Braudy University Professor and Bing Professor of English, University of Southern California
 
Heywood Hale Broun Writer; actor; television newsperson
 
Rachel M. Brownstein Professor of English, Brooklyn College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York
 
William F. Buckley, Jr. Writer; Editor-at-Large; broadcaster; publisher
 
Stephen Budiansky Writer
 
Gabrielle Burton Writer
 
Lorene Cary Author
 
Walter C. Clemens, Jr. Writer; Professor of Political Science, Boston University Associate, Harvard University Center for Science and International Affairs
 
Pat Conroy Novelist
 
Claire Kehrwald Cook Editor; author; formerly Editorial Director, Modern Language Association of America
 
Robin Cook, MD Physician; writer
 
Alistair Cooke Journalist; broadcaster
 
Maureen Corrigan Writer; book reviewer; professor
 
Robert W. Creamer Writer; biographer; formerly Senior Editor, Sports Illustrated
 
Gene D. Dahmen Attorney; past President, Boston Bar Association
 
Lois DeBakey Writer; lecturer; consultant; Professor of Scientific Communication, Baylor College of Medicine
 
Frank Deford Writer and commentator
 
Vine Deloria, Jr. Professor of Law, Religious Studies, Political Science, and History, University of Colorado
 
Joan Didion Author
 
Annie Dillard Writer; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
Mark Doty Poet
 
Rita Dove Writer; Commonwealth Professor of English, University of Virginia; recipient, Pulitzer Prize; former U.S. Poet Laureate
 
William K. Durr Professor Emeritus of Education, University of Michigan; past President, International Reading Association
 
Andrea Dworkin Writer
 
Esther Dyson President, EDVenture Holdings; Chair, Electronic Frontier Foundation; Member, U.S. National Information Infrastructure Advisory Council
 
Freeman J. Dyson Writer; Professor of Physics, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton NJ
 
Anne Edwards Biographer; novelist; past President, Authors Guild
 
Gretel Ehrlich Writer; Guggenheim Fellow
 
Louise Erdrich Author
 
Carolly Erickson Historian; writer
 
James Fallows Writer; national correspondent, The Atlantic Monthly
 
Howard Fast Writer
 
Frances FitzGerald Writer; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
Maria Irene Fornes Playwright
 
Elizabeth Frank Writer; Joseph E. Harry Professor of Modern Languages and Literature, Bard College; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
Reuven Frank Formerly President, NBC News; formerly television news producer
 
Ian Frazier Writer
 
John Kenneth Galbraith Economist; writer; formerly U.S. Ambassador to India; Paul M. Warburg Professor Emeritus of Economics, Harvard University
 
Sara Garnes Linguist; Director of First Year Composition and Associate Professor of English, Ohio State University
 
Michael G. Gartner Language columnist; formerly President, NBC News; past President, American Society of Newspaper Editors; past Chairman, Pulitzer Prize Board
 
Henry Louis Gates, Jr. W.E.B. DuBois Professor of Humanities, Chair, Department of Afro-American Studies, Harvard University
 
J. Edward Gates Lexicographer; editor; Professor Emeritus of English, Indiana State University
 
James Gleick Author; columnist
 
Philip Gourevitch Writer
 
Francine du Plessix Gray Writer
 
Georgia M. Green Professor of Linguistics; writer
 
Stephen Greenblatt The Harry Levin Professor of Literature, Harvard University
 
Linda Gregerson Associate Professor of English, University of Michigan
 
Alma Guillermoprieto Writer; staff writer, The New Yorker
 
Patricia Hampl Writer; Regents’ Professor of English, University of Minnesota
 
Liane Hansen Radio correspondent
 
Robert Hass Former U.S. Poet Laureate
 
The Hon. Mark O. Hatfield Formerly U.S. Senator from Oregon
 
Mark Helprin Writer; editor; Senior Fellow, Hudson Institute
 
Oscar Hijuelos Author; recipient, Pulitzer Prize and Rome Prize
 
Douglas R. Hofstadter Professor of Cognitive Science and Computer Science; Director, Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition, Indiana University; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
Jenny Holzer Artist; writer
 
Gloria Hom Educator and consultant; Professor of Economics, Mission College; member, California State University Board of Trustees; member, Board of Trustees, Dominican College of San Rafael
 
Garrett Hongo Writer
 
Laurence Horn Professor; author
 
Fanny Howe Poet; novelist
 
Sue Hubbell Science and nature essayist
 
The Hon. Shirley M. Hufstedler Attorney; formerly U.S. Secretary of Education; formerly Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
 
Molly Ivins Journalist; columnist; author
 
Jennifer James Cultural anthropologist; writer
 
Joyce Johnson Writer; recipient, National Book Critics Circle Award
 
Erica Jong Poet; novelist; essayist
 
June M. Jordan Poet; Professor of African American Studies and Women’s Studies, University of California, Berkeley
 
Alfred E. Kahn Robert Julius Thorne Professor Emeritus of Economics, Cornell University; formerly Economic Adviser to the President of the United States
 
Roger Kahn Author; journalist
 
Wendy Kaminer Writer; Research Fellow, Radcliffe College
 
Alice Kaplan Professor; writer
 
Justin Kaplan Writer; recipient, Pulitzer Prize and National Book Award
 
Stanley Kauffmann Film critic for The New Republic
 
Trudy Kehret-Ward Educator, University of California, Berkeley; writer
 
Garrison Keillor Author; radio host
 
Elizabeth T. Kennan, PhD Formerly President, Mount Holyoke College
 
Tracy Kidder Writer
 
Jamaica Kincaid Author
 
Florence King Writer; critic
 
Maxine Hong Kingston Writer; recipient, National Book Award, National Book Critics Circle Award, Anisfield-Wolf Race Relations Award, and PEN USA West Award in Fiction
 
Galway Kinnell Poet; Erich Maria Remarque Professor of Creative Writing, New York University; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
The Hon. Jeremy K.B. Kinsman Canadian Ambassador to Russia
 
The Hon. Jeane J. Kirkpatrick Diplomat; writer; educator; formerly U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations
 
Ed Koren Cartoonist/captionist, The New Yorker
 
Jane Kramer Writer, The New Yorker; author
 
Maxine Kumin Writer; formerly Consultant in Poetry, Library of Congress; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
Robert Kuttner Founder, co-editor, The American Prospect; columnist, Business Week, The Boston Globe
 
William Least Heat-Moon Author
 
David Leavitt Novelist; short story writer
 
Wendy Lesser Writer; Editor, The Threepenny Review

Anthony Lewis Columnist, The New York Times
 
Flora Lewis Columnist
 
Robert E. Lewis Lexicographer; Professor of English, University of Michigan; Editor in Chief, Middle English Dictionary
 
Sara Lawrence Lightfoot Emily Hargroves Fisher Professor of Education, Harvard University
 
Phillip Lopate Writer; Professor of English, Hofstra University
 
Lois Lowry Author
 
Claudine B. Malone Management consultant; formerly Associate Professor, Harvard Business School
 
William Manchester Writer; Professor of History Emeritus, Wesleyan University; Fellow, Pierson College, Yale University
 
Robert Manning Writer; editor; formerly Editor in Chief, The Atlantic Monthly
 
Greil Marcus Historian; essayist; critic
 
Richard Curry Marius Novelist; biographer; Director of Expository Writing, Harvard University
 
Suzanne R. Massie Writer; lecturer on Russian history and culture; Fellow, Harvard Russian Research Center
 
Armistead Maupin Author
 
Alice E. Mayhew Editorial Director, Simon & Schuster
 
The Hon. Eugene McCarthy Writer; poet; lecturer; formerly U.S. Senator from Minnesota
 
Mary McGrory Journalist; columnist; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
Terrence McNally Playwright
 
Leonard Michaels Professor of English, University of California, Berkeley
 
Hassan Minor, Jr. Vice President for Government Affairs, Howard University
 
Lorrie Moore Writer; Professor of English, University of Wisconsin
 
Lance Morrow Essayist, Time; University Professor, Boston University
 
The Hon. Daniel Patrick Moynihan U.S. Senator from New York; formerly Professor of Political Science
 
Bharati Mukherjee Professor; writer; winner, National Book Critics Circle Award
 
Alice Munro Author
 
Cullen Murphy Managing Editor, The Atlantic Monthly
 
The Hon. Maurine Neuberger Formerly U.S. Senator from Oregon; formerly Oregon state legislator
 
Ambassador Thomas M.T. Niles United States Ambassador to Greece; U.S. Representative to the European Community; formerly U.S. Ambassador to Canada; Assistant Secretary of State for European and Canadian Affairs
 
Marsha Norman Playwright
 
Mary Oliver Poet; Professor, Bennington College
 
Cynthia Ozick Novelist; essayist; member, American Academy of Arts and Letters
 
Margaret Sayers Peden Translator
 
Ivars Peterson Mathematics/Physics Editor, Science News
 
Stephen Pinker Professor of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; writer
 
Robert Pinsky Poet; translator; U.S. Poet Laureate; Professor of English, Boston University
 
Robert S. Pirie President and Chief Executive Officer, Rothschild Inc.
 
Katha Pollitt Writer; Contributing Editor, The Nation
 
Alvin F. Poussaint, MD Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School
 
Ellen F. Prince Professor of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania
 
E. Annie Proulx Novelist
 
Jane Bryant Quinn Journalist; financial columnist
 
Tony Randall Actor
 
William James Raspberry Urban affairs columnist and broadcast commentator; Knight Professor for the Practice of Journalism, Duke University; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
Robert Reich Professor; former U.S. Secretary of Labor; author; political economist
 
Richard Rhodes Author; recipient, National Book Critics Circle Award, National Book Award, Pulitzer Prize, and MacArthur Foundation Grant
 
Frank Rich Writer and critic, The New York Times
 
Richard Rodriguez Writer
 
Edward W. Rosenheim Editor; writer; Professor of English Emeritus, University of Chicago
 
Judith Rossner Novelist
 
Robert J. Samuelson Columnist, The Washington Post, Newsweek
 
John Sayles Film director; writer; screenwriter; actor
 
Antonin Scalia Supreme Court Justice
 
Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. Writer; historian; educator; formerly Special Assistant to the President of the United States; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
Lloyd Schwartz Professor; poet; music critic
 
David Sedaris Writer and humorist
 
Harvey Shapiro Poet; senior editor
 
Elaine Showalter Professor of English, Princeton University
 
Leslie Marmon Silko Author
 
John Simon Drama and film critic; music columnist, The New Leader
 
Mona Simpson Adjunct professor; novelist
 
Carlota S. Smith Professor of Linguistics and Director, Center for Cognitive Science, University of Texas
 
Susan Sontag Writer
 
Theodore C. Sorensen Attorney; writer; Senior Counsel
 
Susan Stamberg Radio correspondent
 
Margaret O’Brien Steinfels Editor, Commonweal
 
Shane Templeton Foundation Professor of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Nevada, Reno
 
Paul Theroux Novelist; travel writer
 
Elizabeth Marshall Thomas Writer
 
Nina Totenberg Radio and television correspondent
 
Elizabeth C. Traugott Professor of Linguistics and English, Stanford University
 
Calvin Trillin Writer; columnist
 
Anne Tyler Novelist; recipient, Pulitzer Prize
 
The Hon. Stewart L. Udall Writer; Chairman of the Board, The Archaeological Conservancy, Santa Fe, New Mexico; formerly U.S. Secretary of the Interior and U.S. Representative from Arizona
 
Helen H. Vendler A. Kingsley Porter University Professor of English, Harvard University
 
Paula Vogel Professor at Large, Brown University
 
David Foster Wallace Writer
 
Douglas Turner Ward Actor; playwright; recipient, Vernon Rice Award and Obie Award
 
Wendy Wasserstein Playwright
 
Calvert Watkins Victor S. Thomas Professor of Linguistics and the Classics, Harvard University; past President, Linguistic Society of America
 
Fay Weldon Writer
 
Eudora Welty Writer
 
Jacqueline Grennan Wexler Writer; formerly college president
 
Tom Wicker Author; journalist; newspaper editor
 
John Edgar Wideman Novelist; writer
 
Alden S. Wood Lecturer on Editorial Procedures; columnist on language and English usage
 
Richard A. Young Writer; editor; lecturer; publisher; engineer; Executive Director, National Registry of Environmental Professionals
 
William Zinsser Writer; editor; educator
 
We regret that the following members of the Usage Panel, who participated in the program for this edition, have died.

Cleveland Amory, Isaac Asimov, Ralph Backlund, John Bainbridge, Alton Blakeslee, Dwight Bolinger, Paul Brooks, Gerald Carson, Claudia Cassidy, Roy H. Copperud, Norman Cousins, Malcolm Cowley, Marshall B. Davidson, Robertson Davies, Michael Dorris, A. Bartlett Giamatti, The Hon. S.I. Hayakawa, Paul Horgan, John K. Hutchens, William F. Johnston, The Hon. Barbara Jordan, Alfred Kazin, Walter Kerr, Charles Kuralt, J.J. Lamberts, Milton I. Levine, M.D., J. Anthony Lukas, Russell Lynes, David McCord, Kenneth McCormick, James A. Michener, Richard Scott Mitchell, Jessica Mitford, David Ogilvy, C.B.E., Leo Rosten, Berton Roueché, Vermont Royster, Carl Sagan, Robert Saudek, Glenn T. Seaborg, Art Seidenbaum, Jack Smith, Wallace Stegner
 
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by the Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

CONTENTS · INDEX · ILLUSTRATIONS · BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD

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